Equal Rights for Androids and Humans Free Essays

Equal Rights for Androids and Humans The concept of equality among all people was, unfortunately, not â€Å"self-evident† until the passengers on the Mayflower proclaimed it in 1620. A section of the Mayflower Compact reads, â€Å"†¦and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . (Commanger, 23) Written in 1776, the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence states, â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (US Declaration Ind. We will write a custom essay sample on Equal Rights for Androids and Humans or any similar topic only for you Order Now This phrase echoes the same beliefs as those expressed in the Mayflower Compact. Efforts to achieve equality among all Americans have continued to this day. The concept of equality has not been ignored by Hollywood, either. The concept of equality has been a central theme in various popular films over the years. One such film is Bicentennial Man. The theme of Bicentennial Man challenges the viewer to question where they think the line of equality ought to be drawn. Throughout history, humans have struggled with this concept. Naturally, individuals desire to be the best, and they try to distance themselves from those who are not the same; the homeless, the handicapped, people from different cultures, or those that look different. The film approaches this idea in a different manner because Andrew, the android â€Å"star† of the film, is not a person. It takes Andrew a period of two hundred years (hence the name of the movie, Bicentennial Man) to convince the World Government that he did, in fact, have a soul and should be considered an equal. Columbus, Bicentennial Man) The film’s idea of android equality is not (yet) an issue needing to be addressed in American society. The film’s concept of equality does, however, resemble the real challenges of human equality faced by many Americans throughout history. At the start of the movie, it was established that Andrew only existed to serve and obey his owners, the Martin family. His only purpose was to obey the commands of and attend to the needs of this family. Jeremy Bentham, a political theorist, believes this is an example of the concept of utilitarianism. In simple terms, utilization is using an object (or people) â€Å"as a tool† to achieve a goal. (Nelson, 205). A word that could be used interchangeably with utilitarianism is, of course, slavery. Bicentennial Man evaluation of android equality is a clear reflection of the challenges of equal rights faced by many Americans throughout the history of the nation. In the film, Andrew Martin, the android, fought for 200 years in order to be declared equal to the humans he once served. In the real history of America, however, African-Americans fought for more than 300 years for equal rights as Americans. If only reality was a swift as Hollywood! Works Cited: Bicentennial Man. Dir. Chris Columbus. Perf. Robin Williams and Embeth Davidtz. Radiant Productions, 1999. DVD. Mayflower Compact. November 11, 1620. Documents of American History. Ed. Henry S. Commanger. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1968. Nelson, Brian. Western Political Thought From Socrates to the Age of Ideology. 2nd. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996. Print. How to cite Equal Rights for Androids and Humans, Essay examples

Educating Rita Essay Transition Example For Students

Educating Rita Essay Transition Educating RitaEntertainment from todays astounding visual effects in movies to men acting as women in Shakespearean plays some centuries ago, have always been and will always be appreciated by many.Even George B. Shaws play Pygmalion, has given a few laughs, but not only made for engaging an audience in something fun and making money, instead to a noticeable extent for people to learn. Pygmalion in fact, is a play filled with its popular misconceptions, like in Act 1 where a professor in phonetics happens to recognize unknowably a person he was meant to meet in India, while arguing with him on a street in London. Here the class differences are very emphasized since the play is based on a social interaction between the classes, and this causing social problems. These social problems are mentioned as the sexual tensions arise in the play. One of the most important concepts Shaw though is the Socio-linguistics, since the story is based on a bet of a common flower girl transforming into a duchess thanks to a properly taught English. In most stories misconceptions are found to make the plot more interesting. Shaw also uses this technique for his story to attract the reader making one event crucial for the development of the story. He opens his umbrella and dashes off Strandwards, but comes into collision with a flower girl who is hurrying in for shelter, knocking her basket out of her hands. A blinding flash lightning, followed instantly by a rattling peal of thunder, orchestrates the incidentA common example of a popular misconception is when two people accidentally meet in odd circumstances. In this case two people coincidentally bump into each other on the street: a flower girl and a man who is in a higher class than her. It is this collision, with a rattling thunder which orchestrates the incident that explains how all the events come into place and becoming a good opening scene. In the leading event the first themes are introduced: the class differences. Six pence thrown away! Really, mamma, you might have spared Freddy that. ( Act 1, pg. 17 Miss Eynsford Hill says about Eliza)The class differences are very defined and the upper classes disrespect is very marked as seen in this quote. The quote suggests p retty much an air of superiority and arrogance from Miss Eynsfords Hill part and little compassion to a person who is trying to make a living. During the period of time the play takes place society had its social classes heirachiallythe upper class there was no interaction at all with the lower classes. As the play suggests the distinctions between the classes were even clearer. The poor were divided into two: the deserving and the undeserving poor. Im a good girl I am(Liza constantly repeats this in the first acts of the play) As deserving poor Liza, the flower girl has to continuously show her innocence. She has to work hard and be aware of the police, since they are often there as a hindrance. Any little mistake when selling flowers can be the cause of jail. The deserving poor are the people who try to climb the social ladder by working and try to have a decent living, much different from the undeserving poor. Dont say that, Governor. Dont look at it that way. What am I, Governors both? I ask you, what am I. Im one of the undeserving poor: thats what I am. Think what that means to a man. It means that hes up agen middle class morality all the timeI dont eat less hearty than him; and drink a lot more. I want a bit of amusement, cause Im a thinking man( Act 2, pg 58 Mr Doolittle says to Mr Higgins)The undeserving poor, the people who spend most of the time drinking the money they have earned do not have any remorse of not l..iving a life with middle class moralities with its responsibilities and duties. Mr Doolittle is a stereotype for this kind of living. .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .postImageUrl , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:hover , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:visited , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:active { border:0!important; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:active , .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5 .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u72dd3f2cdc53a5571dc86a97de6304b5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: David Foster Wallace’s essay Consider the LobsterAs mentioned the class differences are utterly shown and while this interaction between the two classes occurs the issue of the social problem arises. You expect me to get into that and wet myself all over! Not me. I should catch my death. I knew a woman did it every Saturday night; and she died of it(Act 2, pg 47 Liza says about bathing) The lower class had to be careful of catching diseases and protect themselves from the cold, Londons streets were harsh to live in. Bathing was, in fact, as the quote explains something to be afraid of, as nudity and issues involving their hygiene. This scene is like death for Liza, who has never even seen her own face in the mirror, which the author with his writing portrays realistically.These are one of the many social problems Liza is not ready to deal with. The act of having to give up everything she has learned throughout her life living on the streets is hard. She is suddenly facing new problems and a different way of thinking and living that is clearly illustrated in the bathing scene. The sexual tensions that were not there before are now seen in the next acts. When the girls life of becoming as an great opportunity is seen as a problem for the women. Will you please keep to the point, Mr Higgins. I want to know on what terms the girl is to be here. Is she to have any wages? And what is to become of her when youve finished your teaching? You must look ahead a little.(Act 2, pg 42 Mrs Pearce says to Mr Higgins)A conflict that is repeatedly mentioned in all acts, is this tension between the two sexes. To the men it is an advantage for a young woman to learn proper English and be able to climb the social ladder drastically. The women in the play, Mrs. Pearce and Mrs. Higgings instead see the consequences of the girl, the social problem, the adaptation she has to go through by living in an entirely unknown world.Socio-linguistics is included in this change of life the main character is dragged in to. How language is used was and is an important factor in every society.Mr Higgins, the professor in phonetics explains it being a decisive matter if one wants to climb in the social ladder. Men begin in Kentish town with 80 a year, and end in Park lane with a hundred thousand; but they give themselves away every time they open their mouths(Act 1 pg 27, Mr Higgins says to the gentleman, Mr Pickering)The author gives the example of a poor girl that by talking according to upper class is mistaken as a princess. As you speak you are perceived which Shaw illustrates in the play. When the flower girl was treated as a lady she acted as a lady. This is a good lesson to learn and can be with all kinds of people and situations. George B. Shaw did not only write this play to entertain which this analysis elucidates. Class differences are conspicuous, but it is hard to know the characteristics of each if one has not been in that position, illustrates the play. Therefore, plays that interpret the views of rich and poor, deal with social antagonisms and those are enlightened in Pygmalion. Not only this even sexual tensions are studied. As the men focus on one objective the women do not, they analyze its surroundings, thinking about it as a whole with its consequences. This one definitely sees with the male and female characters in the play. The socio-linguistics, which the writer also has as one of the main themes, is defined to be the key factor on how you perceive people. Lastly, what he also puts emphasis into is the popular misconceptions that are crucial for the plot of this story.

Advantages Of Watching Tv Shows Such As 20/20 Essays - Soap Opera

Advantages Of Watching Tv Shows Such As 20/20 Talk Shows sometimes can be educational, for awareness, personal stories, fashion, or reunions; it just depends on what the viewers of that show are more interested in. Some of these shows are just shows, just movies, and a story of several people that keeps going; however, they are different from Soap Operas because Soap Operas are stories about many different characters, not one story. Shows such as the Family Feud, are game shows, but can be educational at the same time. There are many different types of shows being viewed by America on television. It all depends on the person watching, and what he chooses to watch. Each person has the opportunity to watch whatever he or she wants to watch. This is why channels were created. If you don't want to watch a show, change the channel. And parents take your children out. Maybe since we watch television so much, we too have become overweight, as many Americans have. Movies and Cinema Essays

Essay Sample on Creditors

Essay Sample on Creditors Our creditors are heavily involved with sharing, selling, and releasing our personal identifying information for profit. Like the businesses and companies we deal with, we all have different credit backgrounds so we will all have different creditors that we deal with. For right now, let us talk about who some of your creditors might be. Each and every business you receive monthly statements from, businesses you make payments to each month, and all those businesses you have accounts with that show open on your credit reports are considered your creditors. We want you to start identifying all your creditors and create a list utilizing the form below. If you start creating this list now and add to it as we move through the chapters, it will make the protection process easier for you to complete. If you need custom essays, research papers, theses, dissertations or term papers on Business, Finance or other disciplines feel free to contact our professional custom writing service.

James VI Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

James VI - Essay Example His father Henry Stewart but widely known as Lord Darnley. Darnley, he lost his life in a mysterious explosion at his residence. Just seven months after this Mary Queen of Scots was forced to surrender her throne as she was beaten by rebels. Mary went away and James was left alone. James was given the throne of Scotland at the age of fifteen months this is when he became King James VI of Scotland (Harris& McDonald 2006 ). Today, James I of England also known as James VI of Scotland has addressed to Parliament on the divine right of kings. This was very disappointing to Parliament after many conflicts between it and King James. King James made a horrible statement to all religious eyes that kings are a figure like God himself. "Kings are fairly known as Gods, for that they use a manner of likeness of divine power upon this planet." This surprised the listeners as he spoke regarding the similarity of kings and God. This sent awe throughout the square where the speech was made. Many have said that this will send the king straight to hell with no judgment what so ever. The king made some over the edge of the earth similarities between the power of God and the power of kings. This is an exert from his speech showing the similarities: "God has the power to create, or destroy, make, or unmake at his pleasure, to give life, or send death, to judge all, raise low things, and to make high things low at his pleasure, and to God are both soul and body due. And the like power have Kings; they make and unmake their subjects: they have the power of raising and casting down: of life, and of death: judges over all their subjects, and in all causes, and yet accountable to none but God only." (www.thedukeofyork.org/files/pdf/jamesi) This statement surprised a lot of church officials at the time and numerous protesters were there in opposition to the King. One protester held up a sign saying, "You are not God, he made the Bible." After the King saw this sign, he promised to translate the Bible to English. This is not certain to happen, as the King has a bad relationship with parliament. This might cause him to not have enough money to translate the Bible, but it will bring us to no conclusions. . As a result, James VI of Scotland was put on the English throne as James I. Like his predecessor, James was a passionate supporter of the Anglican Church. Because of this, he did not have much leniency for Puritan's demands for the improvement of the church. What little tolerance he had went to the agreement of a new translation of the Bible to English, called the King James Version or Authorized Version (www.biblelife.org/calvinism.htm ) (one of the most commonly used English translations today). Other than that, James disapproved of further modifications to church doctrines. Upset by the king's refusal, many Puritans left England to flee to Holland and later sail on the Mayflower, heading for a new life in the Americas. King James I, a shred Scotsman, was head of both the state and the church in England. He saw his subjects could defy him as their spiritual leader. He therefore threatened to harass the more bothersome Separatists out of the

Intravenous Paracetamol to manage pain Research Proposal

Intravenous Paracetamol to manage pain - Research Proposal Example Patients are bound to experience pain after the effect of anaesthesia given before surgery is finally gone. White et al (2010) had reported a result of surveys in Europe and the USA, stating the need to improve the quality of managing pain after surgeries. The practice then was to use opioids which have multiple adverse effects (AEs): constipation, urinary retention, vomiting/nausea, allergic reactions, confusion, sedation, respiratory depression, and hypotension. These AEs increased the cost of hospitalization and delayed the recovery of patients. A better way of managing pain was then under clinical trials for 15 years. It involved the use of analgesics that require less opioids. There was no FDA approved Intravenous Acetaminophen at that time. Cadence Pharmaceuticals Inc. patented the first I.V. Paracetamol in July 8, 2011 (US SEC 2011) and produced Ofirmev which, until the present, does not have a competitor worldwide due to the recognized protection for intellectual property. Th is gathered evidence about the efficacy and safety of using Ofirmev (the only available US FDA approved Intravenous Acetaminophen in the market), how it benefits patients, and actually improved the quality of pain management. There were evidences based on actual clinical trials with patients that proved the efficacy and safety of Intravenous Paracetamol to neonates, infants, children, adolescents, adults, and even the elderly with age 65 years old and above, for mild, moderate, and severe cases of pain, especially postoperative pain. Introduction Focus is given to the extent of actual benefits observed in many clinical trials, limitations, and clarifications pertaining to the use of I.V. Paracetamol use for postoperative pain management. As a background, over a year after the introduction of the US FDA approved injectable pain reliever under the brand name Ofirmev, doctors have pursued further clinical trials in Europe and the USA covering thousands of patients. One of the reference s of this paper took the effort to search for registered clinical trials in order to learn more about efficacy, safety, proportion of patients who responded favourably or not, to mostly postoperative cases. It would be interesting to know under what conditions I.V. Acetaminophen should be administered to patients. What procedures were followed? Why? There are very young to very old patients who encounter the need for surgery. How should it be given? In actual experiences, was it safe to administer the use of this analgesic to any of such patients? What are the chances of having a satisfied postoperative patient after using Ofirmev? For one thing, doctors excluded patients with symptoms pointing to contraindications against the use of Intravenous Acetaminophen. These are situations wherein patients have severe liver disease, hepatic impairment and active hepatic disease, allergic to acetaminophen, chronic malnutrition, severe renal impairment, and to patients with history of being al coholic. The US FDA (2012a) announced that the limitation per dosage of acetaminophen should be 325 mg. while the total maximum dosage per day must not exceed 4 grams. For infants, the recommended dose of the US FDA for acetaminophen in vial is only 50 mL per child weighing less than 33 kg. (US FDA 2012b, p.12) There were cases of acetaminophen over dosages in infants and adults in the past. For adults, from 1998 to 2003, a total of 131 people experienced â€Å"acute liver failure in the United States† due to acetaminophen overdose (US FDA 2012a). Nonetheless, the medical practice has changed from using mostly opioids like morphine and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to the preferred use of Intravenous Acetaminophen in combination with less opioids only when needed, for reasons that will be disclosed in this paper. Problem and Purpose Quality management of postoperative pain requires provisions for the comfortable recovery of patients right after surgery. Unfor tunately, the use of opioids to

Age assessments for unaccompanied asylum seeking

Age assessments for unaccompanied asylum seeking DISSERTATION Age assessments for unaccompanied asylum seeking children: Policy, law and implications for social work. Abstract Methodology Literature Review Chapter One – Introduction Chapter Two – Unaccompanied Asylum Seekers Chapter Three – Age Assessment Policy, Legislation and Practice Chapter Four – Conclusion and Recommendations. Unaccompanied asylum seeking children arrive in the UK seeking refuge from often-horrific events in their home countries. The response of both national government and local authorities to this influx has been largely unsatisfactory with campaigners arguing that the focus has been on cutting costs and removing young asylum seekers rather than providing them with the care that they are entitled to. This study suggests that policy and practice around age assessment is central to this argument. There is significant evidence that local authorities are pressurising social workers to age assess children as older than they are in order to save them money. The haphazard way in which age assessments have usually been carried out only serves to encourage this behaviour. Even without financial pressure, the lack of a standard approach to age assessment is also leading to inconsistencies when age assessments are put into practice The focus of this dissertation has been to analyse how, why and when age assessments are used in processing unaccompanied asylum seekers and examine whether the process is fair and consistent. The methodology has primarily to adopt secondary sources and evaluate evidence from as wide a range of viewpoints as possible. The dissertation has been aimed towards a conclusion that the current process is unsatisfactory and has attempted to deliver recommendations that could improve the process. Literature for this dissertation has been gathered from a combination of academic books and journals, government publications, reports produced by independent agencies and articles from newspapers and magazines including The Guardian and Community Care. One of the most detailed reports on the subject of assessment is the 2007, When is a child not a child? Asylum, age disputes and the process of age assessment by Crawley. Much of the factual detail about the actual mechanics of age assessment has been gathered from this source. Of academic journals, the articles written by Kohli have been most useful as they delivering the results and analysis from a wide range of studies around unaccompanied asylum seekers. Each year, approximately 3000 unaccompanied children and young people arrive in the UK to seek asylum.[1] Many of these are subject to age assessment to clarify that they are entitled to services available to vulnerable children in the UK. The age of people claiming to be children can be disputed by a range of professionals, from immigration officers to police and social workers. It is important to define what an age assessment actually is at the beginning of this study. An age assessment is he method used by either the UK border and Immigration Agency or local authority social services departments to assess the age of an asylum seeker.[2]There is currently no method that is capable of defining the exact age of a child and the accuracy of the assessment will often be produced within a range of two years over or below the assessment age.[3] Some commentators have argued that many local authorities have proactively looked to avoid the cost of looking after young asylum seekers in need and have set up control measures to keep children aged 16-18 out of the territory.[4] One of the mechanisms for doing this has been attempts by social workers to stop classifying unaccompanied minors as children. There have been suggestions that many social workers became preoccupied with attempting to assess the age of applicants rather than providing services and that such an assessment was crude exercise based on the individual opinion of a single social worker. As Kohli writes â€Å"studies reported a growing disbelief in respect of those claiming to be under 18 and the treatment of anyone over 16 years as a de facto adult allowed access to food and shelter but little else.†[5] Professionals working in the highest echelons of childcare have expressed similar concerns, for example the Children’s Commissioner Sir Al Aynsley Green has stated: â€Å"Although Home Office Policy is for the immigration officer to apply the ‘benefit of the doubt’ in favour of the applicant in borderline cases, the evidence suggests that in practice this is frequently not adhered to. The result is that a substantial number of asylum seekers who are in fact unaccompanied children are excluded from the protection of domestic care regimes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [6] Government policy from the early part of the decade has been to work in partnership with local authorities and disperse asylum seekers of all ages around the country. The Home Office negotiated contracts with a number of authorities to receive and accommodate asylum seekers.[7] There also is evidence to support this. Central government has since 2005 looked to change the role of social work teams at ports of entry to work practically as adjuncts to the Border and Immigration Agency, deliberately narrowing the gap between immigration and social services functions. There is clearly a financial motivation for this – in 2005 the 6000 unaccompanied asylum seeking children offered services by local authorities comprised less than 10% of cases yet used up approximately 25% of the Home Office budget.[8]Social work teams have been set targets in terms of turning away age disputed asylum seekers and assessing clients claiming to be 15 as older.[9] This study looks at how the UK deals with unaccompanied asylum seekers and in particular examines policy and practice around age assessment. Chapter two focuses on the legislation in place and policy around it whilst chapter three looks more specifically at the age assessment processes and the general failings of the system in the UK. Chapter four concludes with recommendations on improving the system Unaccompanied asylum seeking children arrive in the UK for a number of reasons. A recent study of 218 arrivals found that half came from countries undergoing armed conflict or serious disturbances and over two fifths were victims of direct or indirect persecution. Deprivation, poverty or trafficking for exploitation were other primary reasons for seeking asylum.[10] Dealing with asylum seeking children, either with or without their families is a growing area of social work practice yet one in which there is relatively little understanding of the needs or circumstances of such children.[11] In legislative terms, legislation such as The Children’s Act 1989 and The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families remain central to issues around assessment and care for asylum-seeking children and they should also be included under the remit of the Every Child Matters agenda. The Children and Young People’s Plan 2005 for example makes reference to joint working between housing and social care bodies to meet the housing needs of unaccompanied asylum seekers. [12] For local authorities, there is a duty to provide services necessary to safeguard and promote the well-being of any children deemed to be in need under the Children Act 1989. Due to the absence of their parents, unaccompanied children are classed as vulnerable and therefore in need. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 also reinforces the local authority duty to support unaccompanied minors. It is helpful to have a clear definition of what an unaccompanied asylum seeker actually is. The Immigration and Nationality Directorate definition is a young person under the age of 18(or who appears to be if there is no proof); who is applying for asylum in his or her own right; and who has no adult relative or guardian to turn to within the UK.[13] The age of an unaccompanied asylum seeker has historically been an important factor in respect of the Special Grant that the Home Office made available to unaccompanied minors. Prior to 2004 there were two levels of support available, with those supported under the age of 16 receiving a higher level and those first supported at age 16 or 17 receiving half that amount.[14] However, a judicial review – the Hillingdon Judgement – carried out in 2004 has significantly increased the impact on local authorities. The judgement ruled that, except in exceptional cases, all asylum-seeking children must be treated under section 20 of the Children’s Act 1989 which classes them as looked after children. [15] There is clearly an impact on service provision for both national and local government. Watters writes that â€Å"the arrival of significant numbers of unaccompanied asylum-seeking children through the port of Dover thus presented very significant challenges to social care, health and education providers in the south east.† [16] Asylum seekers who after the assessment process became looked after children would be entitled to foster or residential placements, an allocated social worker and financial support. They may also have qualified for the benefits of leaving care status up to the age of 21, a further financial burden on local authorities. The question of age then is a crucial issue for local authorities. Many young people seeking asylum do not have official papers or documentation confirming their age so practitioners in both social services and immigration have difficult decisions to make. It can be difficult to draw information from asylum seeking children – research shows that when they are asked about reasons for their asylum request, they try and fit their stories into the narrow format that they believe are acceptable in their given country.[17]This in turn can lead to scepticism amongst officials and social workers, the same research reported instances of social services personnel being cynical about young Kosovan and African males claiming to be younger than they looked and thus worrying that their services were being exploited and their resources drained.[18] Ultimately, age assessment is a crucial tool for immigration officials and social workers. There are asylum seekers who try to abuse the system, so a method of asserting age is required. When the current practices serve this purpose will be discussed in chapter three. When and Why Most age disputes in asylum cases occur when an asylum seeker first applies for asylum, normally at their port of entry.[19]There is little in the way of formal assessment at this point, age disputes will be lodged primarily based on the basis of appearance, demeanour and documentation. Another issue of contention is the range of individuals or professionals that might dispute the age of an asylum seeker – this can include immigrations officials, social workers or police officers. Social workers may even dispute the age of a child who had not been queried by immigration officials. Age disputes may happen several months or even years after a child has entered the country. Crawley quotes a case study of a young girl who had been brought into the country at a young age to be used as a domestic slave. When immigration officials became aware of her five years later – still under the age of 16 – she was age disputed before eventually taken into the care of a social services department.[20] In contrast, many young people, perhaps some who are over 18, slip through the net and are classed as minors. Many social services departments simply do not have the resources to undertake formal age assessments and have concerns about the impact of multiple interviews and assessment on young asylum seekers. As such, decisions are made not to query age. Policy and Legislative framework Home Office policy in terms of unaccompanied minors is set out in policy documents including Policy bulletin 33, Guidance from processing applications from children and Guidance on age disputed cases 3rd ed which lays out specific procedures for professionals who dispute a claimant’s age and believe that it is an adult claiming to be a child. One of the most interesting aspects of policy and perhaps the most controversial in the light of what appears to be happening is that the INDs guidance on age disputed cases states clearly that when there is an age dispute â€Å"a claimant must be given the benefit of the doubt with regards to their age unless their physical appearance strongly suggests that they are aged 18 or over†.[21]It seems that this is not the case currently in practice – local authorities certainly are encouraging social work team to dispute age more regularly. Other aspects of the IND guidance can be confusing and it is not surprising that there are inconsistencies in practice. For example there is no actual duty for immigration officers to refer age disputed cases to the appropriate local authority, rather this is something that should be done in principle, a situation that can only complicate things for social workers further down the line. Overall, the current system seems disjointed and variable. As Crawley writes: â€Å"There is evidence of a significant gap between what is supposed to happen and to what happens in practice†[22] and some of the issues involves at age assessment units around the country highlight this: A general lack of care, including a lack of food and water, for young people waiting to be screened A failure to use the privacy of separate interview rooms Difficulties with microphones meaning conversations held through the glass screen in the public area are either overheard or not heard at all No responsible adult being present to support young person[23] Clearly age assessment is not a simple matter. All children vary in development, maturity and natural growth and there can be a wide range of supposed ‘normal findings’ at various ages. It is extremely difficult to accurately gather a young persons age and things such as race, ethnicity and local conditions such as disease and malnutrition have to be considered in any assessment. Whether children’s social workers are qualified to do this is questionable The organisation Youth Support which assists young refuges reports that in its own age assessment process it includes as many factors as possible including â€Å"height, weight, body mass, shoe size, developmental factors such as skin care and teeth, sexual development; mental and emotional age estimates including thought processes and general concepts. Also of great importance is the history and social milestones which the young person might have experienced – again talking culture and religion into consideration.†[24] There is clearly inconsistency in the process nationwide. Michie argues that one of the problems in the UK has been that a diversity of systems and guidelines has developed in assessing the age of unaccompanied minors, involving a combination of history collection, physical anthropometry and radiographs. He writes: â€Å"Their lack of uniformity identifies an underlying difficulty: there is no method by which chronological age can be precisely estimated in this age group. Paediatricians in the United Kingdom care for small numbers of individuals in late adolescence and early adulthood in graduate outpatient services, but often have little experience in this area.†[25] There are some success stories. At Heathrow Airport for example, Hillingdon Social Services have used a number of strategies to deal with large volumes of unaccompanied asylum seekers. These have included use of a dedicated police officer for child protection, a specific questionnaire for staff working at terminal 3 and the development of a specifics age assessment tool combined with specific training,.[26] Guidance for Social Work Practice Age assessment is clearly a difficult area for social work practitioners. There is little experience in this type of work and relatively little in the way of practice guidelines. The guidance drawn up by the Children’s Legal Centre is perhaps the most useful document for social workers to refer to when carrying out age assessments. Some of the points included are: Taking account of ethnicity, culture and customs of the person being assessed and well as the level of trauma, tiredness, anxiety and bewilderment present The asylum seeker may have had coaching prior to arrival. It is important for the social work to engage with the person in a process sometimes known as ‘joining’. The assessment framework should be led by open, non-leading questions The practitioner should note the verbal and non-verbal (body language) behaviour of the person A useful indicator is if the person seems uncomfortable talking to an adult A detailed family tree with ages of parents and siblings can help assessing likely age Questions about the activities and roles a person was involved in prior to entering the UK can be a good indicator Social workers may consider arranging for the person to be put in a social situation with people of the age stated and observing interaction Gaining detailed accounts of educational history can be a valuable source of information in making an accurate age assessment Assessment of life skills is useful – does the person have any experience of living independently, managing money etc[27] All of the above can be done in conjunction with opinion and input from other sources including foster carers, teachers, doctors, interpreters and residential workers. It is useful also to have input from paediatricians, dentists or optician although a social worker should take into account advice from paediatricians that there can be a five year error in age assessments.[28] Just as important is information and best practice sharing between professional involved in this type of work. A uniform approach to age assessment across the UK should be a shared objective. There are clearly huge improvements necessary in the way that social service departments across the country deal with unaccompanied asylum seekers. This includes both the process for age assessment and the subsequent services provided. Evidence shows that staff in the various agencies dealing with these children lack knowledge about the services available and how to deal with the emotional trauma that many of these children will have experienced.[29]Social workers dealing with age assessments are clearly lacking in the skills to do so accurately. One reported when surveyed: â€Å"We do them (age assessments) but we can be wrong five years either side – it matters a lot doesn’t it? They can end up with many dates of birth – social services, Home Office, their own..†[30] Practitioners need such understand the vulnerability of the young people they are dealing with and avoid taking a cynical approach. As Michie concludes: â€Å"The fairness, legality and ethical base of any national framework for age assessment has to take into account legal history, jurisprudence as well as the paediatric wisdom, â€Å"What if this were my child?†, Although it may be difficult to quantify the inadequacies of the current system, it clearly compounds abuse to a vulnerable group of children. We must do better.†[31] The are some positives in examining the UK response to unaccompanied asylum seekers . The more holistic approach developed in recent years seems to be more efficient are more aware of the sensitivities of the issues than for example the US and Australian governments. Bhaba et al write of the UK: â€Å"It has made extensive efforts to identify children in genuine need at the earliest possible stage and to institute programmes to target trafficking in children through training of in country border officials and the instigation of research. [32]This is a pleasing sign, yet problems still occur when age is disputed. Recommendations: There are a number of steps that can be taken to improve the way in which young asylum seekers are treated to ensure consistency. Protection of vulnerable children is crucial, yet it is also important that age assessments can be used to identify asylum seekers over the age of 18 who seek to abuse the system. The EU’s reception directive states that unaccompanied children seeking asylum should be appointed a legal guardian[33] and this should be adopted by the UK Helping vulnerable children through the process would be a welcome improvement. Trained, skilled age assessors should be employed at ports of entry. These may well be social workers, experienced in dealing with this age group, accountable to a child protection team with paediatric expertise open to them in some form. Another option would be to establish fully trained multi agency teams based in regional assessment centres, something that would produce holistic and better-informed outcomes. Ideally age assessors should be financially independent of local authority social services – this would limit the chance of pressure being put upon assessors to reach targets for the number of age assessments found to be 18+. The lack of statutory guidance on the process of age assessment should also be addressed – this would help alleviate some of the inconsistencies in the process. A final recommendation, supported by Crawley, would be for the age assessment process to be overlooked by an independent age assessment panel which could provide support and guidance, help with the auditing process and make it less likely that decisions could be challenged or influence by those holding the local authority purse strings. The most important thing is that age assessment is done fairly and consistently, and that young asylum seekers are treated in the same way, regardless of port of entry or the local authority overseeing them. At present this is not the case and there is work for legislators, policy makers and practitioners to do if this is to be rectified. Bibliography Bhaba J, Finch N, Crock M Schmidt S, Seeking Asylum Alone, Themis Press 2006 Chase e, Emotional Well-being of asylum seeking children, http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2008/07/29/108994/well-being-of-asylum-seeking-children.html accessed 15 October Children’s Legal Centre, Practice Guidelines for age assessment of young unaccompanied asylum seekers, http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/NR/rdonlyres/BAA6E134-7810-42C1-9634-2AC500D326DE/0/PracticeNotesKarenGoodman.pdf accessed 15 October Crawley, H, When is a child not a child? Asylum, age disputes and the process of age assessment, Immigration Law Practitioners Association, May 2007 DFES 2005, Guidance on the Children and Young People’s Plan, Hayes D, Humphries B, Cohen S, Social Work, Immigration and Asylum, Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2004 Kelly A, Minors Conflict, The Guardian Jan 31 2007 http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2007/jan/31/asylum.guardiansocietysupplement1 accessed 16 October Kohli R, The Comfort of Strangers: social work practice with unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and young people in the UK, child and Family Social Work ,vol 11 2006 Kohli R, The Sound of Silence: Listening to What Unaccompanied Asylum-seeking Children Say and Do Not Say, British Journal of Social Work vol 36 2006 Michie CA, Age Assessment: time for progress? Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(6) June 2005 Mitchell F, The social services response to unaccompanied children in England, Children and Family Social Work, vol 8 August 2003 Watters C, Refugee Children, Routlege 2008 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jan/05/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices accessed 15 October Asylum seekers and unaccompanied minors, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jan/05/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices accessed 16 October http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/asylumprocessguidance/specialcases/guidance/disputedagecases.pdf?view=Binary accessed 15 October www.everychildmatters.com accessed 14 October http://www.ilpa.org.uk/infoservice/Info%20sheet%20Age%20Disputes%20%20Age%20Assessment.pdf accessed 16 October 1 [1] Chase e, Emotional Well-being of asylum seeking children, http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/2008/07/29/108994/well-being-of-asylum-seeking-children.html [2] http://www.ilpa.org.uk/infoservice/Info sheet Age Disputes Age Assessment.pdf [3] http://www.ilpa.org.uk/infoservice/Info sheet Age Disputes Age Assessment.pdf [4] P2 Kohli R, The Comfort of Strangers: social work practice with unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and young people in the UK, child and Family Social Work ,vol 11 2006 [5] p2 Kohli 2006 [6] p4 Crawley 2007 [7] p85 Watters 2008 [8] p84 Watters C, Refugee Children, Routlege 2008 [9] p84 Watters C, Refugee Children, Routlege 2008 [10] p179 Mitchell F, The social services response to unaccompanied children in England, Children and Family Social Work, vol 8 August 2003 [11] p132 Hayes D, Humphries B, Cohen S, Social Work, Immigration and Asylum, Jessica Kingsley Publishers 2004 [12] p22 Guidance on the Children and Young People’s Plan, DFES 2005 [13] P179 Mitchell 2003 [14] p179 Mitchell 2003 [15] Kelly A, Minors Conflict, The Guardian Jan 31 2007 http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2007/jan/31/asylum.guardiansocietysupplement1 [16] p85 Watters 2008 [17] p711 Kohli R, The Sound of Silence: Listening to What Unaccompanied Asylum-seeking Children Say and Do Not Say, British Journal of Social Work vol 36 2006 [18] p718 Kohli 2006 [19] p14 Crawley 2007 [20] p16 Crawley 2007 [21] p43 Crawley 2007 [22] p44 Crawley 2007 [23] p47 Crawley 2007 [24] Asylum seekers and unaccompanied minors, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jan/05/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices [25] p612 Michie CA, Age Assessment: time for progress?Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(6) June 2005 [26] p613 Michie 2005 [27] Childrens Legal Centre, Practice Guidelines for age assessment of young unaccompanied asylum seekers, http://www.childrenslegalcentre.com/NR/rdonlyres/BAA6E134-7810-42C1-9634-2AC500D326DE/0/PracticeNotesKarenGoodman.pdf [28]